THE CANTERBURY TALES BY CHAUCER

The Canterbury Tales is the most famous and critically acclaimed work of Geoffrey Chaucer, a late fourteenth-century English poet. In or around 1378, Chaucer began to develop his vision of an English poetry that would be linguistically accessible to all-obedient neither to the court, whose official language was French, nor to the Church, whose official language was Latin. Instead, Chaucer wrote in the vernacular, the English that was spoken in and around London in his day. Undoubtedly, he was influenced by the writings of the Florentines Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, who wrote in the Italian vernacular. Even in England, the practice was becoming increasingly common among poets, although many were still writing in French and Latin. That the nobles and kings Chaucer served (Richard II until 1399, then Henry IV) were impressed with Chaucer's skills as a negotiator is obvious from the many rewards he received for his service. Money, provisions, higher appointments, and property eventually allowed him to retire on a royal pension. In 1374, the king appointed Chaucer Controller of the Customs of Hides, Skins and Wools in the port of London, which meant that he was a government official who worked with cloth importers. His experience overseeing imported cloths might be why he frequently describes in exquisite detail the garments and fabric that attire his characters. Chaucer held the position at the customhouse for twelve years, after which he left London for Kent, the county in which Canterbury is located. He served as a justice of the peace for Kent, living in debt, and was then appointed Clerk of the Works at various holdings of the king, including Westminster and the Tower of London. After he retired in the early 1390s, he seems to have been working primarily on The Canterbury Tales, which he began around 1387. By the time of his retirement, Chaucer had already written a substantial amount of narrative poetry, including the celebrated romance Troilus and Criseyde.

Chaucer's personal life is less documented than his professional life. In the late 1360s, he married Philippa Roet, who served Edward Ill's queen. They had at least two sons together. Philippa was the sister to the mistress of John of Gaunt, the duke of Lancaster. For John of Gaunt, Chaucer wrote one of his first poems, The Book of the Duchess, which was a lament for the premature death of John's young wife, Blanche. Whether or not Chaucer had an extramarital affair is a matter of some contention among historians. In a legal document that dates from 1380, a woman named Cecily Chaumpaigne released Chaucer from the accusation of seizing her (raptus), though whether the expression denotes that he raped her, committed adultery with her, or abducted her son is unclear. Chaucer's wife Philippa apparently died in 1387.

Chaucer's original plan for The Canterbury Tales was for each character to tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back. But, instead of 120 tales, the text ends after twenty- four tales, and the party is still on its way to Canterbury. Chaucer either planned to revise the structure to cap the work at twenty-four tales, or else left it incomplete when he died on October 25, 1400. Other writers and printers soon recognized The Canterbury-Tales as a masterful and highly original work. Though Chaucer had been influenced by the great French and Italian writers of his age, works like Boccaccio's Decameron were not accessible to most English readers, so the format of The Canterbury Tales, and the intense realism of its characters, was virtually unknown to readers in the fourteenth century before Chaucer. William Caxton, England's first printer, published The Canterbury Tales in the 1470s, and it continued to enjoy a rich printing history that never truly faded. By the English Renaissance, poetry critic George Puttenham had identified Chaucer as the father of the English literary canon. Chaucer's project to create a literature and poetic language for all classes of society succeeded, and today Chaucer still stands as one of the great shapers of literary narrative and character.

  

General Prologue

       At the Tabard Inn, a tavern in Southwark, near London, the narrator joins a company of twenty- nine pilgrims. The pilgrims, like the narrator, are travelling to the shrine of the martyr Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury. The narrator gives a descriptive account of twenty-seven of these pilgrims, including a Knight, Squire, Yeoman, Prioress, Monk, Friar, Merchant, Clerk, Man of Law, Franklin, Haberdasher, Carpenter, Weaver, Dyer, Tapestry-Weaver, Cook, Shipman, Physician, Wife, Parson, Plowman, Miller, Manciple, Reeve, Summoner, Pardoner, and Host. (He does not describe the Second Nun or the Nun's Priest, although both characters appear later in the book.) The Host, whose name, we find out in the Prologue to the Cook's Tale, is Harry Bailey, suggests that the group ride together and entertain one another with stories. He decides that each pilgrim will tell two stories on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back. Whomever he judges to be the best storyteller will receive a meal at Bailey's tavern, courtesy of the other pilgrims. The pilgrims draw lots and determine that the Knight will tell the first tale.

Chaucer's portrait of the thirty pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales gives us an excellent idea of the fourteenth century society. Except for royalty and aristocracy as well as robbers and tramps, Chaucer has painted the entire English nation of his time. The thirty pilgrims, including the host, belong to diverse professions. The Knight, the Squire and the Yeoman were the first group of pilgrims to come to the Tabard Inn. They were father, son and servant, and thus form a household group.

Of his knight, Chaucer declares, "He was a verray, parfit, gentil, knight". He loves chivalry, truth, honour, generosity and courtesy. He is widely travelled and is the hero of numerous battles. Among these are the battles for defending the Christian faith against heathenness. His fighting for faith had taken him to the frontiers of Christendom and beyond. His dress was stained with the rust and oil from his armour. It seemed that he had come straight from the battlefield to set out on this pilgrimage. The glory he had gained in warfare did not make him arrogant. Though bold and brave, he is also very modest and gentle. He is very cautious with his words, careful never to speak even with the slightest trace of impoliteness to anyone. Far from being as reckless adventurer, he is an extremely prudent person. For centuries, critical tradition had pointed out there are only positive traits in Chaucer's portrait of the knight. He presents a completely ideal figure in whose character there is a stronger religious element than in those of the knights of Spenser, although in the fourteenth century chivalry was in its decline. Recent critics have suggested that in this very ideal presentation the keenest satire could be subtly concealed. This could also have been an attempt on the part of Chaucer to please the aristocracy and the courtiers who were then his principal readers.

The Squire, the son of the Knight, was a man of about twenty, of medium height and with curly hair. He was healthy and powerful—and indication of his lustfulness. He too had achieved much fame from fighting in battles. He fought neither for the King nor for the religion, but for winning the favour of his ladylove. He spent his leisure time in singing, dancing and playing on the flute—which indicates his artistic temperament. He always dressed fashionably-in a short gown with long sleeves-and looked fresh. However, the squire was very humble and modest. Like his father, he too is the epitome of medieval chivalry.

Chaucer's description of the prioress is the most delicate, humorous passage in the Prologue. The Prioress was interested, above all, in elegance and refinement of manners. She paid much attention to her dress and appearance, and was beautiful, lady-like and romantic-perhaps too much so than would befit a Prioress. She could sing her service divine in a nasal tone. Her French was after the school of Stratford. She knew all table manners. She "let no morsel from the lips fall" and did not wet her fingers deep in the sauce. She had a neatly made cloak and on her arm was a coral rosary from which hung a brooch of shining gold. On the brooch was engraved a crowned 'A' and the words 'amor vincit omnia'. Her name was Eglentyne. The Prioress was very tender-hearted. She would weep at the sight of a dead mouse in a trap. She had with her a few small dogs and she wept bitterly when one of them died or when someone beat them.

The Monk was "a manly man, to be an abbot able". He enjoyed being a monk, yet saw no reason to stick to his cloister and follow the dull routine of prayer, study and fasting. Instead, he went hunting and gratified his taste for fine clothes, choice food and blooded horses. He lived like a lord and was very modern in his outlook. Yet, he was not wicked. The Monk was a scorner of books, and can be compared to the Prioress in his affectation in religion.

There was also a wanton and merry Friar. He was as worldly as the Monk and wicked, besides. He belonged to the mendicant order of the Church that derived its income from begging. The Friar spent his working hours with the public who were the source of his income. He reaped substantial earthly gains and the life he led suited him to perfection. He knew the esteemed women of the parish and heard their confessions in a pleasant manner. His bag was full of pins and knives which he gave to beautiful women. He had performed the marriage of many young women at his own cost. He was of the view that gift to a poor friar was sufficient penance for getting repentance. The Friar was however'a good singer. He could play the fiddle excellently. He was as strong as a wrestler and his neck was as white as a lily. He lisped so that his English might sound sweet. His dress was not that of a poor friar, but that of a master or a Pope.

The Pardoner was the worst of the lot. His wallet was full of pardons "come from Rome all hot". He had a collection of relics and among them, a pillow-case. With feigned flattery and jests, he earned more money a day than a parson did in two months. But he was a good story-teller and could sing hymns beautifully.

There was also a Summoner, who also belonged to the Church-group since he was a functionary of the ecclesiastical courts. He was the Pardoner's companion and the association is appropriate since both were equally unscrupulous. The Summoner was hot and wanton as a sparrow. Children were afraid of his fiery-red face, full of pimples. He loved garlic, onion and blood-red wine. When drunk he would utter the few Latin words he knew. He believed that a person could commit any crime if he had the money. He knew the secrets and wishes of the young people of his diocese and acted as their advisor. Then there was the good man of religion, the Parson. He was an ideal parish priest. Even in poverty, he was very pious and devoted to his duty. He took pleasure in teaching the fellow parishioners and would help the poor out of his meager church income, for he was so humane. He preached only what he practiced.

                He always asked himself the question, "If gold rusts, what would iron do?" He was an ideal man for the parishioners to look up to.

The Clerk of Oxford, like the Parson, was an ideal man. He was devoted to the study of logic, and was the least worldly. His poverty was reflected in his threadbare clothes and in the leanness of his horse. Whatever he earned, he spent on books. His words were full of meaning and wisdom. He would teach as gladly as he would learn.

The Wife of Bath is one of the liveliest of all the lively Chaucerian characters. A portrait of her is given in the General Prologue and it is supplemented by her own account of herself in the Prologue to her tale. The traditional reading was that the very portrayal of the worldly woman was proof of Chaucer's antifeminist orientations. Some critics have suggested that Chaucer drew freely on the satirical, anti-feminist, male chauvinist literature of the day to create the Wife of Bath. But contemporary scholarship attempts to reverse this interpretation and show how the Wife of Bath, far from being the product and proof of her creator's anti-feminism, is herself an out and out feminist. In the first place as Professor Curry points out that the wife of Bath is a typical woman for one born under the sign of Taurus with Mars and Venus in conjunction in the ascendant. Traditional western astrology decrees that a woman born under such circumstances would be more of a man than a woman, in fact a man in woman's skin. Chaucer points out that she is "gat-toothed" (gap-toothed or gate-toothed). Medieval physiognomists regarded this as a sign of boldness, gluttony and lascwiousness, all very un-feminine traits. Her appearance is described as being very bold and fair. In her Prologue she herself connects the feature with her amorous nature.

Nowhere does she reveal herself to be a liberated woman than in her approach towards the institution of marriage. Chaucer tells us that she was a worthy woman: husbands at church she had five. The phrase "at church" has led to much dispute and controversy. Does it suggest that the Wife of Bath had other kinds of husbands as well? The question draws its strength partly from her undisputed capability to have had more than merely five husbands. Of course husbands are after all only husbands and the Wife of Bath knows fully well that she is in need of other categories of men too. Chaucer, after speaking of the woman's unfortunate husbands, hastens to add that besides her husbands she had other company in her youth.

There is no need, Chaucer admits, to speak of these matters now for the Wife of Bath has thrice been to Jerusalem, besides many other sacred places. She is an inveterate pilgrim and this may appear to be ill at case with her identity as a liberated woman. The truth is that she is more an inveterate traveller than an inveterate pilgrim; her pilgrimages are more pleasure trips than pilgrimages. She herself admits in her Prologue that the motives behind her long journeys were not entirely religious. Pilgrimages, in Chaucer's day, were a favourite form of travelling for pleasure. There is no doubt that the Wife of Bath could easily secure the company of the sort she desired during the course of these journeys. The Ploughman was the Parson's own brother. He was the most humble of all men and was very sincere and good at his work. He loved God with all his heart, in good times as well as in adversity. He was always ready to work for the needy and without hope of any reward.

The Miller was a very strong man, good at wrestling. He had varied interests. He was fond of telling tales. He played well on the bagpipe. He did very well at his trade, for he was an excellent thief. He was also an expert in grinding corn. There was a wart right on the tip of his nose and on it stood a tuft of hair. His nostrils were black and wide and his mouth was as big as a furnace. All these physiognomic details are pointers to his greed, vulgarity and coarseness. He wore a white coat and blue hood and went on the pilgrimage armed with sword and buckles.

The Manciple was a good-natured man. He was wise at buying provisions, and always made a good bargain. He had more than thirty masters who would help him in any legal case that rose against him.

The Merchant was a wealthy businessman. He had trade contacts with foreign countries and always took pride in his position as a trader. His profit was his only concern. He wore rich and fashionable clothes, and kept a forked beard. He had good power of argument.

The Man of Law was a great scholar and he loved to read. With his learning and fame, he had gained great wealth and rich robes. Nobody could ever find any fault with the legal documents prepared by him. He always appeared busier than he actually was.

There was also a Franklin who was like St. Julian in his hospitality. His beard was as white as a daisy and his complexion, sanguine-an indication of his mirthful and carefree nature. His bread and wine were of the best quality. At the sittings of the law-court, he was lord and master. He had also served as a sheriff and as an auditor.

The Doctor of Physique was matchless in medicine and surgery. He was also well-instructed in astronomy. He took only a moderate diet. His knowledge of the Bible was very little. He was dressed in red and blue gown. He had a special love for gold, for gold was a cordial in medicine.

The Reeve was a slender and irritable man. His head was shaven like that of a priest. His legs were lean and long like a staff. People were afraid of his trickery and deceit and they hated him as death. He was also a good carpenter.

The other pilgrims of the group were the Haberdasher, the Carpenter, the Weaver, the Dyer and the Upholster who came as team, their equipments were up-to-date. Their knives were mounted with silver and their wives were so vain that they liked to be called madams.

The Shipman came from Dartmouth. He wore a coarse gown but was a good fellow. He was an expert in matters regarding the position of the moon, the tides, the currents and the perils of the seas. He was brave and prudent.

The Host was an impressive man, worthy of respect. He was bold, wise and well-instructed. He was very hospitable and entertained the pilgrims with his wit and mirth. He acted as their friend as well as guide. His name was Harry Bailey. With his keen power of observation, Chaucer presents a realistic portrayal of his characters. Being drawn from different walks of life, these characters serve as representatives of life in medieval England. Hence the Prologue has been rightly termed "a portrait gallery".

Themes

The Pervasiveness of Courtly Love

Courtly love motifs first appear in The Canterbury Tales with the description of the Squire in the General Prologue. The Squire's role in society is exactly that of his father the Knight, except for his lower status, but the Squire is very different from his father in that he incorporates the ideals of courtly love into his interpretation of his own role. Indeed, the Squire is practically a parody of the traditional courtly lover. The description of the Squire establishes a pattern that runs throughout the General Prologue, and The Canterbury tales: characters whose roles are defined by their religious or economic functions integrate the cultural ideals of courtly love into their dress, their behavior, and the tales they tell, in order to give a slightly different twist to their roles. Another such character is the Prioress, a nun who sports a "Love Conquers All" brooch.

The Corruption of the Church

By the late fourteenth century, the Catholic Church, which governed England, Ireland, and the entire continent of Europe, had become extremely wealthy and corrupt. Churchmen accepted bribes, bribed others, and indulged themselves sensually and gastronomically, while ignoring the poor famished peasants begging at their doors. the religious figures Chaucer represents in the Canterbury tales all deviate in one way or another from what was traditionally expected of them, the Monk, Prioress, and Friar were all members of the clerical estate, the Monk and the Prioress live in a monastery and a convent, respectively. Both are characterized as figures who seem to prefer the aristocratic to the devotional life, the Prioress's bejeweled rosary seems more like a love token than something expressing her devotion to Christ, and her dainty mannerisms echo the advice given by Guillaume de Loris in the French romance Roman de la Rose, about how women could make themselves attractive to men. the Monk enjoys hunting, a pastime of the nobility, while he disdains study and confinement, the Friar was a member of an order of mendicants, who made their living by traveling around and begging, and accepting money to hear confession. Friars were often seen as threatening and had the reputation of being lecherous, as the Wife of Bath describes in the opening of her tale, the Summoner and the Friar are at each others' throats so frequently in the Canterbury tales because they were in fierce competition in Chaucer's time—summoners, too, extorted money from people.

Overall, the narrator seems to harbor much more hostility for the ecclesiastical officials (the Summoner and the Pardoner) than he does for the clerics. For example, the Monk and the Pardoner possess several traits in common, but the narrator presents them in very different ways, the narrator remembers the shiny baldness of the Monk's head, which suggests that the Monk may have ridden without a hood, but the narrator uses the fact that the Pardoner rides without a hood as proof of his shallow character. The Monk and the Pardoner both give their own opinions of themselves to the narrator-the narrator affirms the Monk's words by repeating them, and his own response, but the narrator mocks the Pardoner for his opinion of himself.

Symbols

Springtime

the Canterbury tales Opens in April, at the height of spring, the birds are chirping, the flowers blossoming, and people long in their hearts to go on pilgrimages, which combine travel, vacation, and spiritual renewal, the springtime symbolizes rebirth and fresh beginnings, and is thus appropriate for the beginning of Chaucer's text. Springtime also evokes erotic love, as evidenced by the moment when Palamon first sees Emelye gathering fresh flowers to make garlands in honor of May. the Squire, too, participates in this symbolism, courtly love. He is compared to the freshness of the month of May, in his devotion to.

Clothing

In the General Prologue, the description of garments, in addition to the narrator's own shaky recollections, helps to define each character. In a sense, the clothes symbolize what lies beneath the surface of each personality. The Physician's love of wealth reveals itself most clearly to us in the rich silk and fur of his gown. The Squire's youthful vanity is symbolized by the excessive floral brocade on his tunic.

The Merchant's forked beard could symbolize his duplicity, at which Chaucer only hints.

Physiognomy

Physiognomy was a science that judged a person's temperament and character based on his or her anatomy. Physiognomy plays a large role in Chaucer's descriptions of the pilgrims in the General Prologue. The most exaggerated facial features are those of the peasants. The Miller represents the stereotypical peasant physiognomy most clearly: round and ruddy, with a wart on his nose, the Miller appears rough and therefore suited to rough, simple work. The Pardoner's glaring eyes and limp hair illustrate his fraudulence.